Living in Poverty in These Major Cities Is Equivalent to Smoking Dozens of Cigarettes a Year Due to Pollution

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While air quality is typically measured across broad populations at the city or county level, new tract-level data published by researchers at Harvard University and Boston University earlier this year gives insights into how air quality varies from neighborhood to neighborhood, and how some residents are more exposed to air pollution than others.

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In almost every major city, poor communities – beset by congested highways, polluting factories, and lack of green space – face greater exposure to harmful fine particulate matter than wealthy neighborhoods. Our analysis of neighborhood data reveals the cities where being poor could have the greatest impact on your respiratory health.

To determine the cities with the worst air inequality, Climate Crisis 247 reviewed tract-level data on income and annual PM2.5 concentrations. Cities were ranked based on the inferred effect of an additional $10,000 in household income on PM2.5 exposure, measured as the slope between median household income and average annual PM2.5 concentration. Data on median household income is from the Census Bureau’s 2022 American Community Survey, while data on PM2.5 by census tract is from the Harvard Dataverse and is based on readings from 2019. Only cities with at least 50 overlapping tracts where the regression coefficient between income and PM2.5 was below -0.5 were considered. Annual PM2.5 concentrations were expressed in cigarettes smoked using a conversion factor of 22 µg/m3 per cigarette, based on a methodology developed in 2015 by researchers at Berkeley Earth.

25. Oklahoma City, OK

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.04 µg/m3 (+0.62 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 4.18 µg/m3
Median household income: $64,251
Poverty rate: 15.0%

24. Sacramento, CA

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.04 µg/m3 (+0.62 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 4.25 µg/m3
Median household income: $78,954
Poverty rate: 14.8%

23. Louisville, KY

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.04 µg/m3 (+0.65 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 4.57 µg/m3
Median household income: $63,114
Poverty rate: 15.6%

22. Arlington, TX

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.04 µg/m3 (+0.66 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 4.88 µg/m3
Median household income: $71,736
Poverty rate: 13.0%

21. Lincoln, NE

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.04 µg/m3 (+0.66 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 4.25 µg/m3
Median household income: $67,846
Poverty rate: 12.8%

20. San Antonio, TX

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.04 µg/m3 (+0.67 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 4.89 µg/m3
Median household income: $59,593
Poverty rate: 17.7%

19. Minneapolis, MN

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.05 µg/m3 (+0.75 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 4.87 µg/m3
Median household income: $76,332
Poverty rate: 16.8%

18. San Diego, CA

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.05 µg/m3 (+0.77 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 4.19 µg/m3
Median household income: $98,657
Poverty rate: 11.4%

17. Fresno, CA

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.05 µg/m3 (+0.79 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 5.14 µg/m3
Median household income: $63,001
Poverty rate: 22.1%

16. Paradise, NV

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.05 µg/m3 (+0.81 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 3.98 µg/m3
Median household income: $55,224
Poverty rate: 16.8%

15. Colorado Springs, CO

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.05 µg/m3 (+0.85 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 3.71 µg/m3
Median household income: $79,026
Poverty rate: 10.4%

14. Mesa, AZ

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.05 µg/m3 (+0.86 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 4.24 µg/m3
Median household income: $73,766
Poverty rate: 11.2%

13. Aurora, CO

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.06 µg/m3 (+0.94 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 4.19 µg/m3
Median household income: $78,685
Poverty rate: 10.5%

12. Toledo, OH

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.06 µg/m3 (+1.02 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 5.40 µg/m3
Median household income: $45,405
Poverty rate: 24.6%

11. Henderson, NV

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.06 µg/m3 (+1.02 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 3.46 µg/m3
Median household income: $85,311
Poverty rate: 8.1%

10. Reno, NV

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.07 µg/m3 (+1.12 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 2.55 µg/m3
Median household income: $73,073
Poverty rate: 12.7%

9. Laredo, TX

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.07 µg/m3 (+1.22 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 4.56 µg/m3
Median household income: $60,928
Poverty rate: 21.0%

8. Birmingham, AL

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.07 µg/m3 (+1.22 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 4.97 µg/m3
Median household income: $42,464
Poverty rate: 26.1%

7. Phoenix, AZ

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.08 µg/m3 (+1.29 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 4.26 µg/m3
Median household income: $72,092
Poverty rate: 14.6%

6. Las Vegas, NV

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.08 µg/m3 (+1.36 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 3.62 µg/m3
Median household income: $66,356
Poverty rate: 14.7%

5. Scottsdale, AZ

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.09 µg/m3 (+1.41 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 3.35 µg/m3
Median household income: $104,197
Poverty rate: 6.8%

4. Los Angeles, CA

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.10 µg/m3 (+1.66 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 5.87 µg/m3
Median household income: $76,244
Poverty rate: 16.6%

3. Akron, OH

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.10 µg/m3 (+1.70 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 5.34 µg/m3
Median household income: $46,596
Poverty rate: 22.7%

2. Kansas City, KS

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.12 µg/m3 (+2.02 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 4.21 µg/m3
Median household income: $56,120
Poverty rate: 17.4%

1. El Paso, TX

Effect of -$10,000 income on PM2.5 concentration: +0.13 µg/m3 (+2.09 cigarettes a year)
Average annual PM2.5 concentration: 3.69 µg/m3
Median household income: $55,710
Poverty rate: 18.9%